Behaviour management
Behavior management is similar to behavior modification. It is a less intensive version of behavior therapy. In behavior modification the focus is on changing behavior, while in behavior management the focus is on maintaining order. Behavior management skills are of particular importance to teachers in the educational system. Behavior management include all of the actions and conscious inactions to enhance the probability people, individually and in groups, choose behaviors which are personally fulfilling, productive, and socially acceptable.Baldwin J.D. and Baldwinn J.I. (1986). Behavior principals in everyday life (2nd Edition), Engle Wood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. There is a great deal of research related to "behavior change" and "behavior management". B.F. Skinner and Carl Rogers have given two distinctly different approaches for addressing behavior. Skinner's approach says that any one can manipulate behavior by first identifying what the individual finds rewarding. Once the rewards of an individual are known, then those rewards can be selected that the manager is willing to give in exchange for good behavior. Skinner calls this "Positive Reinforcement Psychology". Rogers proposes that in order to effectively address behavior problems, individual must be persuaded to want to behave appropriately. This is done by teaching the individual the difference between right and wrong including why he or she should do what is right. Rogers believes that the individual must have an internal awareness of right and wrong. Uses of behavior management Many of the principles and techniques used are the same as behavior modification yet delivered in a less intensively and consistent fashion. Usually, behavior management is applied at the group level by a classroom teacher as a form of behavioral engineering to produce high rates of student work completion and minimize classroom disruption. In addition, greater focus has been placed on building self control. Brophy (1986) writes: In general behavior management strategies have been very effective in reducing classroom disruption.Brophy, J.E. (1983) "Classroom Organization and Management." The Elementary School Journal 83/4, 265–285. In addition, recent efforts have focused on incorporating principles of functional assessment into the process.Angela Waguespack, Terrence Vaccaro & Lauren Continere (2006). Functional Behavioral Assessment and Intervention with Emotional/Behaviorally Disordered Students: In Pursuit of State of the Art. International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy, 2 (4), 463–474. http://www.baojournal.com While such programs can come from a variety of behavioral change theories, the most common practices rely on the use of applied behavior analysis principles such as positive reinforcement and mild punishments (such as response cost and child time-out). Behavioral practices such as differential reinforcement are commonly used.Rosemarie Daddario, Karla Anhalt & Lyle E. Barton (2007). Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior Applied Classwide in a Child Care Setting. International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy, 3 (3), 342–348. BAO Sometimes, these are delivered in a token economy or a level system.Cancio, E. & Johnson, J.W. (2007). Level Systems Revisited: An Impact Tool For Educating Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders. International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy, 3 (4), 512–527 http://www.baojournal.com In general the reward component is considered effective. For example, Cotton (1988) reviewed 37 studies on tokens, praise and other reward systems and found them to be highly effective in managing student classroom behavior.Cotton, K. (1988). Instructional Reinforcement. Close-Up No. 3. Portland, OR: Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory. The most comprehensive review of token procedures to match to children's level of behavioral severity was Walker's text "The acting out child."Walker, H. (1990). The Acting Out Child. Sorporis West. Building prosocial behavior Over the years, behavioral management principles such as reinforcement, modeling and even the use of punishment have been explored in the building of prosocial behavior. This area is sometimes referred to as "Behavioral Development" or Behavior analysis of child development. Midlarsky and colleagues (1973) used a combination of modeling and reinforcement to build altruistic behavior.Midlarsky, E., Bryan, J.H., & Brickman, P. (1973). Aversive approval: Interactive effects of modeling and reinforcement on altruistic behavior. Child Development, 44, 321–328 Two studies exist in which modeling by itself did not increase prosocial behavior;Harris, M.B.(1970). Reciprocity and generosity: Some determinants of sharing in children. Child Development, 41, 313–328.Elliot, R., & Vasta, R. (1970). Effects associated with vicarious reinforcement, symbolization, age, and generalization. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 10, 8–15 however, modeling is much more effective than instruction giving (such as "preaching").Bryan, J.H. & Walbek, N.H. (1970). Impact of words and deeds concerning altruism upon children. Child Development, 41, 747–759Bryan, J.H. & Walbek, N. (1970). Preaching and practicing generosity: Children's action and reaction. Child Development, 41, 329–353. The role of rewards has been implicated in the building of self-controlBarry, L.M. & Haraway, D.L. (2005). Self-Management and ADHD: A Literature Review. The Behavior Analyst Today, 6 (1), 48–64 BAO and empathy.Maccoby, E.M. (1968). The development of moral values and behavior in childhood. In J.A. Clausen's (Ed). Socialization and Society. Little Brown Books: BostonAronfreed, J.(1968). Conduct and conscience: The socializing of internalized control of overt behavior. New York: Academic PressAronfreed, J. (1970). The socialization of altruistic and sympathetic behavior: Some theoretical and experimental analysis. In J. Macauley & L. Berkowitz (Eds.) Altruism and helping behavior. New York: Academic Press. Cooperation seems particularly susceptible to rewards.Azrin, N. & Lindsley, O. (1956). The reinforcement of cooperation between children. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 2, 100–102Mithaug, E.D., & Burgess, R.L.(1968). The effects of different reinforcement contingencies in the development of social cooperation. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 6, 402–426.Vogler, R.E., Masters, W.M. & Merrill, G.S.(1970). Shaping cooperative behavior in young children. Journal of Psychology, 74, 181–186.Vogler, R.E., Masters, W.M., & Merrill, G.S.(1971). Extinction of cooperative behavior as a function of acquisition by shaping or instruction. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 119, 233–240. Sharing is another prosocial behavior influenced by reinforcement.Doland, D.J. & Adelberg, K.(1967). The learning of sharing behavior. Child Development, 38, 695–700Gelfand, D.M., Hartmann, D.P., Cromer, C.C., Smith, C.L., & Page, B.C.(1975). The effects of instructional prompts and praise on children's donation rates. Child Development, 46, 980–983 Reinforcement is particularly effective at least early in the learning series if context conditions are similar.Fisher, W.F.(1963). Sharing in preschool as a function of the amount and type of reinforcement. Genetic Psychology Monograph, 68, 215–245. Evidence exists to show some generalization.Altman, K. (1971). Effects of cooperative response acquisition on social behavior during free play. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 12, 387–395 Recent research indicates that behavioral “interventions” produce the most valuable results when “applied” during early childhood and “early adolescence."January, A. M., Casey, R. J., & Paulson, D., "A meta-analysis of classroom-wide interventions to build social skills: do they work?", School Psychology Review, 2011. More controversial has been the role of punishment in forming prosocial behavior. One study found that donation rates of children could be increased by punishing episodes of failure to donate.Hartmann, D.P., Gelfand, D.M., Smith, C.L., Paul, S.C., Cromer, C.C., Page, B.C. & Lebenta, D.V. (1976). Factors affecting the acquisition and elimination of children's donating behavior. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 21, 328–338 The socialization process continues by peers with reinforcement and punishment playing major roles. Peers are more likely to punish cross-gender play and reinforce play specific to gender.Fagot, B.I., & Patterson, G.R. (1969). An in vivo analysis of reinforcing contingencies for sex role behaviors in the preschool child. Developmental Psychology''Lamb, M.E. & Roopnarine, J.L. (1979). Peer influences on sex role deelopment in preschoolers. ''Child Development, 50, 1219–1222Lamb, M.E., Easterbrooks, M.A., & Holden, G. (1980). Reinforcement and punishment among preschoolers: Characteristics and correles. Child Development, 51, 1230–1236 References Category:Behaviorism Category:Behavior modification Category:Classroom discipline Category:Management